Claudia Dale Goldin is an American economic historian and labor economist who is currently the Henry Lee Professor of Economics at Harvard University. In October 2023, she was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for advancing our understanding of women's labor market outcomes"
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has awarded the 2023 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences to Claudia Goldin for her research on gender differences in the labor market. According to the Academy, Goldin’s research has provided new insights into the historical and contemporary roles of women in the labor market, and has revealed the main sources of gender differences in the labor market 12. Her research has shown that several factors have historically influenced - and still influence - the supply of and demand for female labor, including women’s opportunities for combining paid work and a family, decisions relating to education and childrearing, technical innovations, laws and norms, and the structural transformation of the economy 1. Goldin’s work has helped in making gender a necessary focus in learning how labor markets as well as the economy work 3.
:
1. nobelprize.org2. bing.com3. firstpost.com4. cfodive.com5. bankingfrontiers.com
Claudia Goldin’s research has revealed several surprising insights into the historical and contemporary roles of women in the labor market. One of the most significant findings is that the proportion of women in paid work has tripled in many high-income countries over the past century, but significant gender differences remain 1. Goldin’s research has shown that several factors have historically influenced - and still influence - the supply of and demand for female labor, including women’s opportunities for combining paid work and a family, decisions relating to education and childrearing, technical innovations, laws and norms, and the structural transformation of the economy 1.
Goldin’s work has also shown that industrialization disrupted traditional patterns by making it harder for women to work from home. Her identification of a U-shaped curve in women’s labor participation over 200 years demolished the notion of a simplistic link to economic growth 2. Additionally, Goldin has shown that the decline in female labor force participation in the early 20th century was due in part to the rise of the “cult of domesticity,” which idealized women’s role as unpaid caregivers 3.
Overall, Goldin’s research has helped in making gender a necessary focus in learning how labor markets as well as the economy work 14.
1. nobelprize.org2. nature.com3. bing.com4. policycircle.org
Claudia Goldin’s research has provided new insights into the historical and contemporary roles of women in the labor market, and has revealed the main sources of gender differences in the labor market 12. Her work has helped in making gender a necessary focus in learning how labor markets as well as the economy work 13.
Goldin’s research has influenced policy-making by providing evidence-based recommendations for policies that can help reduce gender disparities in the labor market. For example, her research has shown that policies that provide support for working mothers, such as paid parental leave and flexible work arrangements, can help increase female labor force participation and reduce gender wage gaps 1. Goldin has also advocated for policies that promote equal access to education and training for women, as well as policies that address discrimination and bias in the workplace 2.
Overall, Goldin’s research has helped policymakers better understand the complex factors that contribute to gender disparities in the labor market, and has provided evidence-based recommendations for policies that can help reduce these disparities 12.
:
1. nobelprize.org2. bankingfrontiers.com3. policycircle.org4. onmanorama.com5. theguardian.com6. cnbc.com
Several factors have influenced women’s labor force participation, including but not limited to:
Maternal health: The various aspects related to maternity impose a substantial burden on women’s time 1.
Fertility: Lower rates of fertility can, in principle, free up a significant amount of women’s time, hence allowing them to enter the labor force more easily 1.
Childcare and other family-oriented policies: Policies that provide support for working mothers, such as paid parental leave and flexible work arrangements, can help increase female labor force participation and reduce gender wage gaps 2.
Labor-saving consumer durables: The availability of labor-saving consumer durables such as washing machines and vacuum cleaners has reduced the amount of time required for household work, which has made it easier for women to enter the labor force 1.
Social norms and culture: Social norms and cultural attitudes towards women’s work have a significant impact on female labor force participation 1.
Structural changes in the economy: Structural changes in the economy, such as the shift from manufacturing to service industries, have created new opportunities for women in the labor market 1.
These factors have historically influenced - and still influence - the supply of and demand for female labor 2. Claudia Goldin’s research has shown that several other factors have also played a role in shaping gender differences in the labor market, including women’s opportunities for combining paid work and a family, decisions relating to education and childrearing, technical innovations, laws and norms 2.
:
1. ourworldindata.org2. hindustantimes.com3. mgt.sjp.ac.lk4. imf.org5. businessworld.in
๐ข women in India
Why in news: The crime rate may have declined in 2022 (258.1 per lakh population compared to 268 per lakh population in 2021), but crimes against women rose 4% in 2022 compared to 2021, according to the annual report of the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) released recently.
Nature of the majority of crimes against women:
- The majority of crimes against women were of:
- cruelty by husband or his relatives (31.4%),
- kidnapping and abduction of women (19.2%),
- assault on women with intent to outrage her modesty (18.7%) and
- rape (7.1%).
- 13,479 cases were registered under the Dowry Prohibition Act.
Causes:
- Patriarchal society:
- Activists and lawyers attribute this to a patriarchal society.
- Despite high levels of education, male mindsets and societal attitude remain unchanged.
- Regressive value systems:
- India over the last few years has witnessed a strengthening of regressive value systems which women’s movements had struggled to overcome for decades.
- There is a glorification of anti-women practices.
- Dowry or bride price both connote commodity status of women who are traded between families for their productive and reproductive labour.
What does an increase in the registration of crimes against women indicate?
- The NCRB’s report reveals that over 4.45 lakh cases of crimes against women were registered in 2022, equivalent to nearly 51 FIRs (first information report) every hour.
- The rate of crimes against women per lakh population stood at 66.4 while the filing of charge sheets in such cases was pegged at 75.8.
- The high crime rate is an indicator of the persistent “lower status and inequality” faced by women and girls.
- Women and girls continue to be treated as permanent shock absorbers across class, caste and other axes.
- It is an outcome of reconstruction of patriarchy in the neo-liberal economy era.
- The rise can also be attributed to the fact that though India has tough laws for protection of women, their implementation remains a challenge.
- Increase in numbers should not be equated with increase in crime.
- For instance:
- With 14,247 cases in 2022, Delhi recorded the highest rate of crimes against women in the country at 144.4 per lakh, way above the country’s average rate of 66.4.
- The higher numbers show that more cases are being registered in Delhi.
- In contrast, in many other parts of India, the registration of crime is low and the fear of the police high.
- Women in many States, particularly in the rural areas, would not even visit a police station unaccompanied by a male relative.
- For instance:
Key laws for women’s safety:
- Some of the key laws for women’s safety in India are:
- The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956,
- The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961,
- The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987,
- Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005,
- The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 and
- The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986.
Challenges:
- Implementation:
- Implementation faces dual problems of shoddy investigation by police and time taken by courts to deliver justice.
- Lack of officers:
- There is a severe lack of police officers with requisite training for investigations.
- Most of the investigating officers are juniors with a poor pay scale.
- This hampers the actual investigation and preparation of chargesheets.
- Time consuming process:
- When the case reaches the courts, the cases take four to five years.
- If there is an appeal, it takes another 10-15 years.
- Despite fast-track courts for looking into grievous crimes, the fact is they remain as slow as ever.
- There is no seriousness in dealing with the crime.
- Low proportion of women officers:
- While women police officers are involved in all crimes against women, their proportion in the force is dismal and the rate of their recruitment is very slow in all States without exception.
- This also causes disproportionate levels of workload on women police personnel leading to slower rates of charge-sheeting and convictions.
- The representation of women in the police force (as of January 1, 2022) remained at 11.7% of the total state police force.
- This puts undue stress on the limited workforce leading to a high pendency.
Development led by corporates, not women.
Context: The G20 Declaration says it encourages ‘women-led development’ but data show that women are not being paid enough for their work.
Introduction
- The G20 Summit in Delhi adopted a Declaration which resolved to set up a “working group on the empowerment of women.”
- Given the continuing discrimination against women and girls, this is welcome. But by and large, “working groups” formed in the past have not been implemented.
- For example, the Sustainable Development Goals have specific targets to address gender gaps. However, as the Declaration itself admits, “At the midway point to 2030, the global progress on SDGs is off-track with only 12% of the targets on track.”
A vague phrase
- The Gender Equality section says, “We encourage women-led development and remain committed to enhancing women’s full, equal, effective, and meaningful participation as decision makers for addressing global challenges inclusively and in contributing as active participants in all spheres of society, across all sectors and at all levels of the economy...” The phrase ‘women-led development’ is striking and is the contribution of the Government of India.
- This is not an issue of semantics. When phrases like ‘women-led development’ are used, leaders need to describe the parameters of such a development process, which are different from ‘non women-led’ development models.
- The truth is that the development models adopted by countries describing themselves as democracies (mainly developed countries in the West) have led to obscene inequalities between countries, between the rich and the poor within countries, and between men and women.
- The core of this model remains the discredited ‘trickle down theory’ in which big business continues to enjoy state subsidies through tax concessions, bank loan write-offs, subsidies in land availability, and cross-country concessions for the free movement of finance capital on the premise that all this will lead to more investment, creation of employment, and so on.
- The ‘no governance is good governance’ model has removed government regulation, dismantled and sold off public assets, and privatised strategic industries. All this has been done in the name of reforms.
- The G20 Declaration reiterates this commitment. It says, “We recognise the critical role of private enterprise in accelerating growth and driving sustainable economic transformations.” If the macro model of development remains the same, where does women-led development fit in?
‘From Women Development to Women-led Development.’
- On March 7, the bulletin of the Press Information Bureau listed government schemes meant to benefit women under the headline ‘From Women Development to Women-led Development.’ Just as reform is the cover for aggressive profit maximising models of capitalism, women-led development schemes conceal the reality of decreasing government investment in projects and schemes meant for women’s development.
- The Gender Budget was started in 2005-2006. What was meant to be a tool to plug the gaps through prioritised investment has been reduced to an accounting exercise.
- It has two parts. Part A includes schemes which are 100% for women and Part B includes all government schemes where at least one-third of the expenditure is supposedly for women.
- Women-led development should mean a substantial increase in the total amount of the Gender Budget. It should also reflect in a much bigger component in the expenditure in Part A rather than Part B. However, on both counts, the opposite trend dominates. The total Gender Budget for 2023-2024 was reduced from 5.2% of the total expenditure the previous year to 5%.
Conclusion
- On average, there has been no substantial increase in the Gender Budget since its inception, which has remained between 4% and 6%. What is of greater concern is that, in 2023-24, the year that the phrase ‘women-led development’ was used, the expenditure in Part A was at its lowest at around 39% of the total, while Part B made up 61% of expenditure of the Gender Budget. In other words, wholly women-specific schemes are just about 40% of an already inadequate budgetary allocation.
